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资助项目
0.05). For some populations, germination capacity in 12-h photoperiod was significantly higher than that in completed darkness（W-FD: P < 0.01, W-JD: P < 0.05）.Genetic variation within and among six populations was assessed using AFLP markers. Genetic diversity was higher at species level (PPL = 69.19%, HE = 0.221) than at population level (PPL = 26.22%, HE = 0.095, Is =0.140), and populations in southeast Yunnan were strongly differentiated from those in southwest Yunnan (Nei’s GST = 0.575; FST = 0.655). UPGMA analysis demonstrated a clear genetic division between the two populations from DeHong (SW Yunnan; D-JD and D-HG) and the four from WenShan (SE Yunnan; W-FD, W-LH, W-ML, and W-MG). Within-population genetic variation was significantly correlated with population isolation (r(PPL) = -0.94, P = 0.006; r(HE) = -0.85, P = 0.032; r(Is) = -0.87, P = 0.025), but not with population size (r(PPL) = 0.63, P = 0.178; r(HE) = 0.54, P = 0.268; r(Is) = 0.56, P = 0.249).","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3ACraigia%5C+yunnanensis%5C+W.%5C+W.%5C+Smith%5C+%5C%26%5C+W.%5C+E.%5C+Evans%5C+%5C%28Tiliaceae%5C%29%5C+is%5C+an%5C+endangered%5C+deciduous%5C+tree%5C+species%5C+which%5C+has%5C+high%5C+scientific%5C+and%5C+economic%5C+value.%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+is%5C+seriously%5C+threatened%5C+and%5C+has%5C+been%5C+pushed%5C+to%5C+the%5C+verge%5C+of%5C+extinction%5C+due%5C+to%5C+vegetation%5C+destruction%5C+in%5C+China%5C+and%5C+consequent%5C+contraction%5C+of%5C+its%5C+distribution.%5C+Hence%2C%5C+it%5C+was%5C+listed%5C+as%5C+a%5C+nationally%5C+rare%5C+and%5C+endangered%5C+plant%5C+in%5C+1999%5C+and%5C+has%5C+also%5C+been%5C+proposed%5C+as%5C+a%5C+second%5C-ranked%5C+plant%5C+for%5C+national%5C+protection%5C+in%5C+China%5C+and%5C+included%5C+in%5C+IUCN%5C+red%5C+list.%5C+As%5C+a%5C+scientifically%5C+important%5C+and%5C+valued%5C+tree%5C+species%5C+with%5C+endangered%5C+status%2C%5C+the%5C+wild%5C+populations%5C+of%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+therefore%5C+represent%5C+is%5C+a%5C+genetic%5C+resource%5C+that%5C+must%5C+be%5C+conserved.%5C+To%5C+provide%5C+basic%5C+information%5C+for%5C+its%5C+conservation%2C%5C+the%5C+population%5C+dynamics%5C+and%5C+population%5C+size%5C+structures%2C%5C+pollination%5C+biology%5C+and%5C+breeding%5C+system%2C%5C+eleven%5C+fitness%5C-related%5C+characters%5C+and%5C+the%5C+genetic%5C+variability%5C+based%5C+on%5C+AFLP%5C+were%5C+comprehensively%5C+studied.%5C+The%5C+main%5C+results%5C+are%5C+summarized%5C+as%5C+follows%5C%3A%5C+A%5C+total%5C+of%5C+six%5C+wild%5C+populations%5C+of%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+were%5C+found%5C+in%5C+two%5C+disjunct%5C+regions%5C+of%5C+Yunnan%2C%5C+i.e.%5C+WenShan%5C+%5C%28SE%5C+Yunnan%5C%29%5C+and%5C+DeHong%5C+%5C%28SW%5C+Yunnan%5C%29%2C%5C+from%5C+2005%5C+to%5C+2007.%5C+Additionally%2C%5C+in%5C+all%5C+but%5C+one%5C+of%5C+the%5C+populations%5C+we%5C+detected%2C%5C+mature%5C+trees%5C+were%5C+felled%5C+between%5C+2005%5C+and%5C+2007%2C%5C+so%5C+destruction%5C+of%5C+most%5C+of%5C+these%5C+populations%5C+is%5C+ongoing.%5C+Across%5C+the%5C+six%5C+populations%5C+of%5C+extant%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+found%5C+during%5C+our%5C+study%2C%5C+the%5C+total%5C+number%5C+of%5C+mature%5C+%5C%28reproductive%5C%29%5C+individuals%5C+detected%5C+was%5C+584%5C+in%5C+2007%EF%BC%8Cplus%5C+larger%5C+numbers%5C+of%5C+seedling%5C+and%5C+resprouts%5C+from%5C+cut%5C+trunks.%5C+The%5C+result%5C+of%5C+surveying%5C+Population%5C+structure%5C+showed%5C+that%5C+there%5C+are%5C+two%5C+regeneration%5C+types%5C+which%5C+are%5C+seedlings%5C+and%5C+sprouts.%5C+Seedlings%5C+occurred%5C+abundantly%5C+in%5C+gaps%5C+or%5C+open%5C+areas%5C+and%5C+the%5C+size%5C+class%5C+frequency%5C+distributions%5C+were%5C+often%5C+discontinuous%2C%5C+and%5C+the%5C+same%5C+general%5C+pattern%5C+occurred%5C+in%5C+all%5C+the%5C+investigated%5C+populations%5C+for%5C+juveniles%5C+and%5C+adults.%5C+The%5C+numbers%5C+of%5C+seed%5C-origin%5C+individuals%5C+did%5C+however%5C+decline%5C+sharply%5C+with%5C+increasing%5C+size%2C%5C+indicating%5C+a%5C+high%5C+mortality%5C+rate%5C+going%5C+from%5C+seedling%5C+to%5C+sapling%5C+stage%5C+may%5C+be%5C+a%5C+problem%5C+for%5C+this%5C+species.%5C+Additionally%2C%5C+the%5C+cash%5C+crop%5C+cultivation%5C+and%5C+logging%5C+seriously%5C+threaten%5C+the%5C+survival%5C+of%5C+the%5C+species.%5C+We%5C+conducted%5C+field%5C+observations%5C+and%5C+artificial%5C+pollination%5C+experiments%5C+on%5C+the%5C+floral%5C+biology%2C%5C+pollination%5C+process%5C+and%5C+breeding%5C+system%5C+of%5C+Craigia%5C+yunnanensis%5C+in%5C+Fadou%2C%5C+Xichou%5C+county%5C+of%5C+Yunnan%5C+province.%5C+The%5C+lifespan%5C+of%5C+a%5C+single%5C+hermaphrodite%5C+flower%5C+is%5C+approximately%5C+3%5C-4%5C+days.%5C+A%5C+cyme%5C+has%5C+2%5C-9%5C+flowered.%5C+The%5C+flowering%5C+period%5C+of%5C+an%5C+inflorescence%5C+is%5C+usually%5C+5%5C-14%5C+days.%5C+The%5C+flowers%5C+of%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+were%5C+protandrous.%5C+The%5C+stamens%5C+were%5C+within%5C+petal%5C-like%5C+staminodes%5C+in%5C+the%5C+opening%5C+flowers%5C+until%5C+the%5C+flower%5C+withered.%5C+Without%5C+touchment%2C%5C+the%5C+bractlike%5C+staminodes%5C+can%E2%80%99t%5C+open.%5C+Self%5C-pollination%5C+was%5C+partially%5C+avoided%5C+by%5C+temporal%5C+and%5C+spatial%5C+isolation%5C+of%5C+male%5C+and%5C+female%5C+organs%5C+within%5C+the%5C+same%5C+flower.%5C+However%2C%5C+autogamous%5C+and%5C+geitonogamous%5C+pollination%5C+is%5C+unavoidable%5C+because%5C+of%5C+the%5C+large%5C+number%5C+of%5C+flowers%5C+on%5C+a%5C+single%5C+tree%5C+and%5C+the%5C+action%5C+of%5C+pollinators.%5C+The%5C+values%5C+of%5C+both%5C+OCI%5C+%5C%28%E2%89%A54%5C%29%5C+and%5C+P%5C%2FO%5C+%5C%281381%5C%29%5C+and%5C+the%5C+results%5C+of%5C+bagging%5C+tests%5C+indicated%5C+there%5C+was%5C+no%5C+apomixes%5C+in%5C+C.%5C+yunnanensis%5C+and%5C+the%5C+breeding%5C+system%5C+of%5C+the%5C+species%5C+was%5C+outcrossing%5C+with%5C+partial%5C+self%5C-compatibility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MSCA individual fellowship[705432]","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3AEU%5C+MSCA%5C+individual%5C+fellowship%5C%5B705432%5C%5D"},{"jsname":"EU MSCA individual fellowship[750252]","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3AEU%5C+MSCA%5C+individual%5C+fellowship%5C%5B750252%5C%5D"},{"jsname":"European Research Council through the Advanced Grant Project TREEPEACE[FP7-339728]","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3AEuropean%5C+Research%5C+Council%5C+through%5C+the%5C+Advanced%5C+Grant%5C+Project%5C+TREEPEACE%5C%5BFP7%5C-339728%5C%5D"},{"jsname":"Flower scent is a very important character in rose breeding. However, many of 25,000 rose cultivars have no scent or weak scent. The tea scent of modern roses mainly originated from Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet, which is one of the most important ancestors of modern cultivated roses and the very important rose breeding resource. Due to the land expanding, habitat fragmentation and so on, R. odorata has been listed as an endangered species in ‘Chinese Plant Red Data Book—Rare and Endangered Plants’ and as the third-category endangered species in ‘Chinese Rare and Endangered Protective Plants List’. Therefore, it is urgent to protect this species and studying the conservation genetics of R. odorata is essentially important to work out a strategy of conservation.R. odorata comprises three double-petaled varieties (R. odorata var. odorata, R. odorata var. erubescens, and R. odorata var. pseudindica) and one single-petaled variety (R. odorata var. gigantea). The taxonomy of the three double-petaled varieties of R. odorata has been disputed for a long time. They have been treated as intraspecific taxa of R. odorata var. gigantea or R. chinensis by different botanist. According to the morphological analyses, Hurst (1941) inferred that R. odorata var. odorata was the hybrid between R. odorata var. gigantea and R. chinensis. Therefore, in order to clarify the right protective units, two single-copy nuclear genes (GAPDH and ncpGS), together with two plastid loci (trnL-F and psbA-trnH) were applied to study the hybrid origin of the three double-petaled varieties and to identify their possible parents. Our data suggested the hybrid origin of the three double-petaled varieties. We inferred that R. odorata var. gigantea could be the maternal parent and R. chinensis cultivars be the paternal parent. It is strongly suggested that the conservation of R. odorata is the conservation of its wild type, R. odorata var. gigantea. We first applied seven microsatellite loci (SSR) coupled with a single-copy nuclear gene GAPDH to study the genetic diversity and genetic structure of R. odorata var. gigantea. The main results are shown as follows:1. Genetic diversity：R. odorata var. gigantea maintains high degree of genetic diversity within and among populations (SSR: HT = 0.738, HS = 0.569, AR = 5.583, PPB = 97.35%, I = 1.703; GAPDH: HT = 0.739, HS = 0.540). We inferred that, outcrossing, long-lived tree species, clonal reproduction and general intraspecies hybridization between individuals, have contributed to the high degree of genetic diversity in R. odorata var. gigantea.2. Genetic differentiation and genetic structure：There was some degree of genetic differentiation among populations (SSR: GST = 0.229, FST = 0.240; GAPDH: GST = 0.269). The geographic isolation limited the dispersal of pollen or seeds, which resulted in the limitation of gene flow (Nm = 0.792). Then, the limited gene flow should be accounted for the genetic differentiation. Both the results of SSR data and haplotype analysis of GAPDH indicated that, the studied populations were divided into two distinct groups by Honghe River. These two groups showed significant genetic differentiation and represented two separate evolutionary lineages, which should be recognized as two evolutionary significant units (ESUs) for conservation concerns.3. Conservation of R. odorata：R. odorata var. gigantea has been listed in the ‘National Key Protective Wild Species List (II)’. Therefore, the conservation of this species is urgent. We inferred that, the main endangered reasons should be the habitat fragmentation and the reduction of populations and individuals per population resulted from environmental damage and human activities. We proposed that the strategy of in-situ conservation combining with ex-situ conservation should be carried out.","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3AFlower%5C+scent%5C+is%5C+a%5C+very%5C+important%5C+character%5C+in%5C+rose%5C+breeding.%5C+However%2C%5C+many%5C+of%5C+25%2C000%5C+rose%5C+cultivars%5C+have%5C+no%5C+scent%5C+or%5C+weak%5C+scent.%5C+The%5C+tea%5C+scent%5C+of%5C+modern%5C+roses%5C+mainly%5C+originated%5C+from%5C+Rosa%5C+odorata%5C+%5C%28Andrews%5C%29%5C+Sweet%2C%5C+which%5C+is%5C+one%5C+of%5C+the%5C+most%5C+important%5C+ancestors%5C+of%5C+modern%5C+cultivated%5C+roses%5C+and%5C+the%5C+very%5C+important%5C+rose%5C+breeding%5C+resource.%5C+Due%5C+to%5C+the%5C+land%5C+expanding%2C%5C+habitat%5C+fragmentation%5C+and%5C+so%5C+on%2C%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+has%5C+been%5C+listed%5C+as%5C+an%5C+endangered%5C+species%5C+in%5C+%E2%80%98Chinese%5C+Plant%5C+Red%5C+Data%5C+Book%E2%80%94Rare%5C+and%5C+Endangered%5C+Plants%E2%80%99%5C+and%5C+as%5C+the%5C+third%5C-category%5C+endangered%5C+species%5C+in%5C+%E2%80%98Chinese%5C+Rare%5C+and%5C+Endangered%5C+Protective%5C+Plants%5C+List%E2%80%99.%5C+Therefore%2C%5C+it%5C+is%5C+urgent%5C+to%5C+protect%5C+this%5C+species%5C+and%5C+studying%5C+the%5C+conservation%5C+genetics%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+is%5C+essentially%5C+important%5C+to%5C+work%5C+out%5C+a%5C+strategy%5C+of%5C+conservation.R.%5C+odorata%5C+comprises%5C+three%5C+double%5C-petaled%5C+varieties%5C+%5C%28R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+odorata%2C%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+erubescens%2C%5C+and%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+pseudindica%5C%29%5C+and%5C+one%5C+single%5C-petaled%5C+variety%5C+%5C%28R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C%29.%5C+The%5C+taxonomy%5C+of%5C+the%5C+three%5C+double%5C-petaled%5C+varieties%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+has%5C+been%5C+disputed%5C+for%5C+a%5C+long%5C+time.%5C+They%5C+have%5C+been%5C+treated%5C+as%5C+intraspecific%5C+taxa%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C+or%5C+R.%5C+chinensis%5C+by%5C+different%5C+botanist.%5C+According%5C+to%5C+the%5C+morphological%5C+analyses%2C%5C+Hurst%5C+%5C%281941%5C%29%5C+inferred%5C+that%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+odorata%5C+was%5C+the%5C+hybrid%5C+between%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C+and%5C+R.%5C+chinensis.%5C+Therefore%2C%5C+in%5C+order%5C+to%5C+clarify%5C+the%5C+right%5C+protective%5C+units%2C%5C+two%5C+single%5C-copy%5C+nuclear%5C+genes%5C+%5C%28GAPDH%5C+and%5C+ncpGS%5C%29%2C%5C+together%5C+with%5C+two%5C+plastid%5C+loci%5C+%5C%28trnL%5C-F%5C+and%5C+psbA%5C-trnH%5C%29%5C+were%5C+applied%5C+to%5C+study%5C+the%5C+hybrid%5C+origin%5C+of%5C+the%5C+three%5C+double%5C-petaled%5C+varieties%5C+and%5C+to%5C+identify%5C+their%5C+possible%5C+parents.%5C+Our%5C+data%5C+suggested%5C+the%5C+hybrid%5C+origin%5C+of%5C+the%5C+three%5C+double%5C-petaled%5C+varieties.%5C+We%5C+inferred%5C+that%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C+could%5C+be%5C+the%5C+maternal%5C+parent%5C+and%5C+R.%5C+chinensis%5C+cultivars%5C+be%5C+the%5C+paternal%5C+parent.%5C+It%5C+is%5C+strongly%5C+suggested%5C+that%5C+the%5C+conservation%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+is%5C+the%5C+conservation%5C+of%5C+its%5C+wild%5C+type%2C%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea.%5C+We%5C+first%5C+applied%5C+seven%5C+microsatellite%5C+loci%5C+%5C%28SSR%5C%29%5C+coupled%5C+with%5C+a%5C+single%5C-copy%5C+nuclear%5C+gene%5C+GAPDH%5C+to%5C+study%5C+the%5C+genetic%5C+diversity%5C+and%5C+genetic%5C+structure%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea.%5C+The%5C+main%5C+results%5C+are%5C+shown%5C+as%5C+follows%5C%3A1.%5C+Genetic%5C+diversity%EF%BC%9AR.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C+maintains%5C+high%5C+degree%5C+of%5C+genetic%5C+diversity%5C+within%5C+and%5C+among%5C+populations%5C+%5C%28SSR%5C%3A%5C+HT%5C+%3D%5C+0.738%2C%5C+HS%5C+%3D%5C+0.569%2C%5C+AR%5C+%3D%5C+5.583%2C%5C+PPB%5C+%3D%5C+97.35%25%2C%5C+I%5C+%3D%5C+1.703%5C%3B%5C+GAPDH%5C%3A%5C+HT%5C+%3D%5C+0.739%2C%5C+HS%5C+%3D%5C+0.540%5C%29.%5C+We%5C+inferred%5C+that%2C%5C+outcrossing%2C%5C+long%5C-lived%5C+tree%5C+species%2C%5C+clonal%5C+reproduction%5C+and%5C+general%5C+intraspecies%5C+hybridization%5C+between%5C+individuals%2C%5C+have%5C+contributed%5C+to%5C+the%5C+high%5C+degree%5C+of%5C+genetic%5C+diversity%5C+in%5C+R.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea.2.%5C+Genetic%5C+differentiation%5C+and%5C+genetic%5C+structure%EF%BC%9AThere%5C+was%5C+some%5C+degree%5C+of%5C+genetic%5C+differentiation%5C+among%5C+populations%5C+%5C%28SSR%5C%3A%5C+GST%5C+%3D%5C+0.229%2C%5C+FST%5C+%3D%5C+0.240%5C%3B%5C+GAPDH%5C%3A%5C+GST%5C+%3D%5C+0.269%5C%29.%5C+The%5C+geographic%5C+isolation%5C+limited%5C+the%5C+dispersal%5C+of%5C+pollen%5C+or%5C+seeds%2C%5C+which%5C+resulted%5C+in%5C+the%5C+limitation%5C+of%5C+gene%5C+flow%5C+%5C%28Nm%5C+%3D%5C+0.792%5C%29.%5C+Then%2C%5C+the%5C+limited%5C+gene%5C+flow%5C+should%5C+be%5C+accounted%5C+for%5C+the%5C+genetic%5C+differentiation.%5C+Both%5C+the%5C+results%5C+of%5C+SSR%5C+data%5C+and%5C+haplotype%5C+analysis%5C+of%5C+GAPDH%5C+indicated%5C+that%2C%5C+the%5C+studied%5C+populations%5C+were%5C+divided%5C+into%5C+two%5C+distinct%5C+groups%5C+by%5C+Honghe%5C+River.%5C+These%5C+two%5C+groups%5C+showed%5C+significant%5C+genetic%5C+differentiation%5C+and%5C+represented%5C+two%5C+separate%5C+evolutionary%5C+lineages%2C%5C+which%5C+should%5C+be%5C+recognized%5C+as%5C+two%5C+evolutionary%5C+significant%5C+units%5C+%5C%28ESUs%5C%29%5C+for%5C+conservation%5C+concerns.3.%5C+Conservation%5C+of%5C+R.%5C+odorata%EF%BC%9AR.%5C+odorata%5C+var.%5C+gigantea%5C+has%5C+been%5C+listed%5C+in%5C+the%5C+%E2%80%98National%5C+Key%5C+Protective%5C+Wild%5C+Species%5C+List%5C+%5C%28II%5C%29%E2%80%99.%5C+Therefore%2C%5C+the%5C+conservation%5C+of%5C+this%5C+species%5C+is%5C+urgent.%5C+We%5C+inferred%5C+that%2C%5C+the%5C+main%5C+endangered%5C+reasons%5C+should%5C+be%5C+the%5C+habitat%5C+fragmentation%5C+and%5C+the%5C+reduction%5C+of%5C+populations%5C+and%5C+individuals%5C+per%5C+population%5C+resulted%5C+from%5C+environmental%5C+damage%5C+and%5C+human%5C+activities.%5C+We%5C+proposed%5C+that%5C+the%5C+strategy%5C+of%5C+in%5C-situ%5C+conservation%5C+combining%5C+with%5C+ex%5C-situ%5C+conservation%5C+should%5C+be%5C+carried%5C+out."},{"jsname":"How has natural selection determined the evolution of gene regulation by acting on major regulatory factors? This question has been attractive to many evolutionary biologists for a long time. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous posttranscriptional repressors and play essential roles in diverse biological processes in plants. To understand how natural selection has targeted on the entire lay of miRNA regulatory modules during flower development, we resequenced 31 miRNA target sites involved in flower development from five rice populations. We found that purifying selection serves as a major evolutionary force to act on the conserved miRNA binding sites, leading to the globally reduced genetic variation in highly conserved miRNA binding sequences within the entire rice samples. Conversely, positive selection allows variations at nonconserved miRNA binding sites and acts on them in a population-specific behaviour. Further analysis revealed that the polymorphisms within target sites may serve as raw materials for diverse functions of miRNAs by means of the destabilization of duplex, abolishment of existing target sites, and creation of novel ones. Together, the above-mentioned results indicate that variations at conserved binding sites are likely deleterious during rice flower development, whereas variants at nonconserved binding sites may be conductive to flower development-related phenotypic diversities and rice population adaption to variable environmental conditions as well. To further assess functional effects and evolutionary significance of variable alleles at the target genes, we reported the detailed characterization of the haplotype and linkage disequilibrium (LD) patterns of the entire target gene (LOC_Os01g18850，SPL 1) and the 1.4 Mb flanking regions in three rice populations, namely japonica, indica and O. rufipogon. The genetic profile of SNPs at target site and its flanking regions revealed high haplotype frequency, low haplotype diversity and strong LD in two cultivatedricepopulations. By contrast, we observed the opposite phenomena in O. rufipogon. Using the long-range haplotype (LRT) test, we found strong evidence of recent positive selection for SNP 3C/T alleles at target site in the combined O. sativa. Comparsion between the two rice subpopulations indicated that the major haplotype mh 2 containing SNP 3C accounts for half of all haplotypes in indica, while mh 3 containing SNP 3T is 91% in japonica. Moreover, the extent of LD is stronger in japonica than that in inidca. These differences suggest that independent evolutionary events may have occurred in target sequences of two cultivated rice populations and stronger positive selection acted on japonica. Next, we examined geographic distribution of polymorphic variants at target sites. We found that the major alleles SNP 3T and tightly linked SNP 4A in japonica appear to be associated with the adaption to the northern climates during rice flower development.","jscount":"1","jsurl":"/simple-search?field1=all&field=dc.citation.source_filter&advanced=false&query1=floral%2Btraits&&fq=dc.project.title_filter%3AHow%5C+has%5C+natural%5C+selection%5C+determined%5C+the%5C+evolution%5C+of%5C+gene%5C+regulation%5C+by%5C+acting%5C+on%5C+major%5C+regulatory%5C+factors%5C%3F%5C+This%5C+question%5C+has%5C+been%5C+attractive%5C+to%5C+many%5C+evolutionary%5C+biologists%5C+for%5C+a%5C+long%5C+time.%5C+MicroRNAs%5C+%5C%28miRNAs%5C%29%5C+are%5C+endogenous%5C+posttranscriptional%5C+repressors%5C+and%5C+play%5C+essential%5C+roles%5C+in%5C+diverse%5C+biological%5C+processes%5C+in%5C+plants.%5C+To%5C+understand%5C+how%5C+natural%5C+selection%5C+has%5C+targeted%5C+on%5C+the%5C+entire%5C+lay%5C+of%5C+miRNA%5C+regulatory%5C+modules%5C+during%5C+flower%5C+development%2C%5C+we%5C+resequenced%5C+31%5C+miRNA%5C+target%5C+sites%5C+involved%5C+in%5C+flower%5C+development%5C+from%5C+five%5C+rice%5C+populations.%5C+We%5C+found%5C+that%5C+purifying%5C+selection%5C+serves%5C+as%5C+a%5C+major%5C+evolutionary%5C+force%5C+to%5C+act%5C+on%5C+the%5C+conserved%5C+miRNA%5C+binding%5C+sites%2C%5C+leading%5C+to%5C+the%5C+globally%5C+reduced%5C+genetic%5C+variation%5C+in%5C+highly%5C+conserved%5C+miRNA%5C+binding%5C+sequences%5C+within%5C+the%5C+entire%5C+rice%5C+samples.%5C+Conversely%2C%5C+positive%5C+selection%5C+allows%5C+variations%5C+at%5C+nonconserved%5C+miRNA%5C+binding%5C+sites%5C+and%5C+acts%5C+on%5C+them%5C+in%5C+a%5C+population%5C-specific%5C+behaviour.%5C+Further%5C+analysis%5C+revealed%5C+that%5C+the%5C+polymorphisms%5C+within%5C+target%5C+sites%5C+may%5C+serve%5C+as%5C+raw%5C+materials%5C+for%5C+diverse%5C+functions%5C+of%5C+miRNAs%5C+by%5C+means%5C+of%5C+the%5C+destabilization%5C+of%5C+duplex%2C%5C+abolishment%5C+of%5C+existing%5C+target%5C+sites%2C%5C+and%5C+creation%5C+of%5C+novel%5C+ones.%5C+Together%2C%5C+the%5C+above%5C-mentioned%5C+results%5C+indicate%5C+that%5C+variations%5C+at%5C+conserved%5C+binding%5C+sites%5C+are%5C+likely%5C+deleterious%5C+during%5C+rice%5C+flower%5C+development%2C%5C+whereas%5C+variants%5C+at%5C+nonconserved%5C+binding%5C+sites%5C+may%5C+be%5C+conductive%5C+to%5C+flower%5C+development%5C-related%5C+phenotypic%5C+diversities%5C+and%5C+rice%5C+population%5C+adaption%5C+to%5C+variable%5C+environmental%5C+conditions%5C+as%5C+well.%5C+To%5C+further%5C+assess%5C+functional%5C+effects%5C+and%5C+evolutionary%5C+significance%5C+of%5C+variable%5C+alleles%5C+at%5C+the%5C+target%5C+genes%2C%5C+we%5C+reported%5C+the%5C+detailed%5C+characterization%5C+of%5C+the%5C+haplotype%5C+and%5C+linkage%5C+disequilibrium%5C+%5C%28LD%5C%29%5C+patterns%5C+of%5C+the%5C+entire%5C+target%5C+gene%5C+%5C%28LOC_Os01g18850%EF%BC%8CSPL%5C+1%5C%29%5C+and%5C+the%5C+1.4%5C+Mb%5C+flanking%5C+regions%5C+in%5C+three%5C+rice%5C+populations%2C%5C+namely%5C+japonica%2C%5C+indica%5C+and%5C+O.%5C+rufipogon.%5C+The%5C+genetic%5C+profile%5C+of%5C+SNPs%5C+at%5C+target%5C+site%5C+and%5C+its%5C+flanking%5C+regions%5C+revealed%5C+high%5C+haplotype%5C+frequency%2C%5C+low%5C+haplotype%5C+diversity%5C+and%5C+strong%5C+LD%5C+in%5C+two%5C+cultivatedricepopulations.%5C+By%5C+contrast%2C%5C+we%5C+observed%5C+the%5C+opposite%5C+phenomena%5C+in%5C+O.%5C+rufipogon.%5C+Using%5C+the%5C+long%5C-range%5C+haplotype%5C+%5C%28LRT%5C%29%5C+test%2C%5C+we%5C+found%5C+strong%5C+evidence%5C+of%5C+recent%5C+positive%5C+selection%5C+for%5C+SNP%5C+3C%5C%2FT%5C+alleles%5C+at%5C+target%5C+site%5C+in%5C+the%5C+combined%5C+O.%5C+sativa.%5C+Comparsion%5C+between%5C+the%5C+two%5C+rice%5C+subpopulations%5C+indicated%5C+that%5C+the%5C+major%5C+haplotype%5C+mh%5C+2%5C+containing%5C+SNP%5C+3C%5C+accounts%5C+for%5C+half%5C+of%5C+all%5C+haplotypes%5C+in%5C+indica%2C%5C+while%5C+mh%5C+3%5C+containing%5C+SNP%5C+3T%5C+is%5C+91%25%5C+in%5C+japonica.%5C+Moreover%2C%5C+the%5C+extent%5C+of%5C+LD%5C+is%5C+stronger%5C+in%5C+japonica%5C+than%5C+that%5C+in%5C+inidca.%5C+These%5C+differences%5C+suggest%5C+that%5C+independent%5C+evolutionary%5C+events%5C+may%5C+have%5C+occurred%5C+in%5C+target%5C+sequences%5C+of%5C+two%5C+cultivated%5C+rice%5C+populations%5C+and%5C+stronger%5C+positive%5C+selection%5C+acted%5C+on%5C+japonica.%5C+Next%2C%5C+we%5C+examined%5C+geographic%5C+distribution%5C+of%5C+polymorphic%5C+variants%5C+at%5C+target%5C+sites.%5C+We%5C+found%5C+that%5C+the%5C+major%5C+alleles%5C+SNP%5C+3T%5C+and%5C+tightly%5C+linked%5C+SNP%5C+4A%5C+in%5C+japonica%5C+appear%5C+to%5C+be%5C+associated%5C+with%5C+the%5C+adaption%5C+to%5C+the%5C+northern%5C+climates%5C+during%5C+rice%5C+flower%5C+development."},{"jsname":"In the present study, we focused on “Pterygiella complex”, included Pterygiella Oliver, Xizangia D.Y. Hong, Phtheirospermum Bunge ex Fischer & C.A. Meyer, and Pseudobartsia D.Y. Hong, which is endemic to Eastern Asia. Based on chloroplast and nuclear sequences, we explored their phylogeny relationships within Orobanchaceae, the species relations within Pterygiella, and fruit and seed morphology of traditional tribe Rhinantheae. The phylogeny of “Pterygiella complex” was reconstructed based on nuclear and chloroplast sequences within the family Orobanchaceae. The genera relationship within the complex was reconstructed based on chloroplast sequences of atpB-rbcL, atpH-I, psbA-trnH, rpl16, trnL-F and trnS-G. The results showed that “Pterygiella complex” was not a natural group and could be divided into two different clades. Clade I included most taxa, e.g. Pterygiella, Xizangia, Pseudobartsia, Phtheirospermum (exclude P. japonicum). The species of this clade were endemic to East-Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains region. Clade II included Phtheirospermum japonicum (Thunberg) Kanitz, which was a heterogeneous member in genus Phtheirospermum and should be treated as a new monotypic genus. The results supported that Pterygiella bartschioides Hand.-Mazz. and Phtheirospermum glandulosum Benth. should be elevated to genus level as Xizangia and Pseudobartsia, respectively.Furthermore, we focused on the genus Pterygiella to explore the species’ circumscription by molecular phylogeny, DNA barcodes and morphological studies. The results suggested that Pterygiella should divide into three clades. P. duclouxii was divided into clade I and clade II, and P. nigrescens was included the clade I of these P. duclouxii taxa, with which it shares eglandular hairs on the stem. Clade III included P. suffruticosa and P. cylindrica, while the level of inter- and intra-species variation in two species did not support their distinction. Therefore, P. suffruticosa should move into or considered as a variety of P. cylindrica. The form of stem, leaf veins and the indumentum of stems are key traits for circumscribing the species within the genus. By comparing the effectiveness with core DNA barcodes, ITS-2 can be used as suitable DNA barcode in the genus Pterygiella.Fruit and seed characteristics of 49 species in 21 genera of the tribe Rhinantheae and 9 species in 9 genera of Orobachaceae were examined. 25 characters were selected and analyzed by principal component analysis for discovering the systematic significances. The results suggested four main types and six subtypes were distinguished based on gross seed coat appearance, inner tangential wall and thickenings of radial wall. Fruit and seed data reflect the close relationships within “Pterygiella complex”. While, Xizangia was distinctly different from Pterygiella. Phtheirospermum tenuisectum was more similar to the member of section minutisepala within the genus Phtheiroseprmum. Phtheirospermum japonicum was heterogeneous within the genus Phtheirospermum. On the whole, fruit and seed data supported Xizangia and Pseudobartsia as a genus rank and Phtheirospermum japonicum was a heterogeneous member in 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